Types of Cancer and How They Differ
What Do Hyperplasia Findings Mean?
Enlargement or thickening of organs in response to cell changes
Medically reviewed by Steffini Stalos, DO
Hyperplasia, or hypergenesis, is an umbrella term that refers to the overgrowth of cells in a healthy tissue or organ. This causes the tissues and/or organs to become thickened or enlarged. Physiologic hyperplasia is benign, while pathologic hyperplasia is a sign of certain cancers and other abnormalities.
The most common types of hyperplasia include endometrial hyperplasia, breast hyperplasia, and prostate hyperplasia. Typically, hyperplasia is diagnosed through a biopsy and may require further monitoring.
Learn more about hyperplasia, including types, causes, treatment options, ways to cope, and more.
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Hyperplasia vs. DysplasiaHyperplasia and dysplasia are two different types of abnormal changes at the cellular level. Hyperplasia refers to an abnormal increase in the number of cells. Dysplasia refers to abnormal cells that are not cancerous.
Link Between Hyperplasia and CancerHyperplasia is abnormal, but it's not necessarily a sign of cancer. Some types of hyperplasia are benign (not cancerous). Others may develop into cancer over time. For example, benign prostate hyperplasia is never cancerous. Endometrial and breast hyperplasia may or may not increase your cancer risk.
Hyperplasia Types in Women and MenBelow are three of the most common types of hyperplasia among men and women:
Endometrial hyperplasia: Endometrial hyperplasia refers to an abnormally thickened uterine lining, or endometrium. The cell changes caused by endometrial hyperplasia may be benign or precancerous. They may also be a sign of endometrial cancer, a type of uterine cancer.
Breast hyperplasia: Breast hyperplasia can affect both male and female patients. Usual ductal hyperplasia, an overproduction of cells inside the ducts of the breast, nearly doubles the risk of breast cancer. People with atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) or atypical lobular hyperplasia (ALH), which affects milk production glands, may be up to five times more likely to develop breast cancer.
Benign prostate hyperplasia: Benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) refers to an enlarged prostate. It is not malignant.
The causes of hyperplasia vary widely, depending on the type. Examples of hyperplasia causes and risk factors include:
Endometrial hyperplasia: Endometrial hyperplasia happens when the lining of the uterus doesn't shed as it normally would due to a hormonal imbalance—specifically, excess estrogen and not enough progesterone. This can be due to menopause, hormone therapy, or certain conditions, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).
Breast hyperplasia: The cause of breast hyperplasia is unknown. However, it is more common among people over 55 years old, people who smoke, and people with a family history of breast cancer.
Benign prostate hyperplasia: BPH primarily occurs among older men. Researchers believe it may be caused by hormonal changes (such as an increase in estrogen and a decrease in testosterone) as men age.
Hyperplasia doesn't always cause symptoms. It's often only discovered through a biopsy or other testing. If you do have symptoms, you may notice the following:
Endometrial hyperplasia: Atypical uterine bleeding, such as bleeding between periods, short menstrual cycles, or bleeding after menopause, is the main sign of endometrial hyperplasia.
Breast hyperplasia: In many cases, hyperplasia of the breast doesn't cause symptoms. However, you may experience breast pain, lumps, thickened glands, or nipple discharge.
Benign prostate hyperplasia: BPH primarily causes urinary symptoms, such as urinating eight or more times per day, a feeling of urgency, difficulty urinating, urinary retention, urine with an atypical smell or color, incontinence, or urinating when you sleep or just after ejaculating.
Hyperplasia is typically diagnosed through a series of tests that may require repeated follow-ups. The available diagnostic tests for endometrial, breast, and benign prostate hyperplasia are as follows:
Endometrial hyperplasia: A transvaginal ultrasound (that is, an internal pelvic ultrasound) can determine whether or not you have a thickened endometrium. Your healthcare provider may perform more than one transvaginal ultrasound at different times of your menstrual cycle to double-check the results. If the findings are abnormal, a dilation and curettage (D&C), hysteroscopy, or endometrial biopsy can determine whether or not you have endometrial cancer. To check if your cancer has spread, your healthcare provider may also perform imaging tests, such as a chest X-ray, computed tomography (CT) scan, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan.
Breast hyperplasia: If a mammogram suggests abnormal growth, your healthcare provider can diagnose you with hyperplasia of the breast using a biopsy.
Benign prostate hyperplasia: A healthcare provider can diagnose you with BPH with a series of tests after a physical examination and digital rectal exam. These may include a cystoscopy (an endoscopy of the bladder), blood tests for prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a transrectal ultrasound, urinalysis, urodynamic tests, and/or a biopsy.
If tests reveal that you don't have cancer or precancerous cells, you may or may not need treatment. Here are the treatment options for benign hyperplasia:
Endometrial hyperplasia: Endometrial hyperplasia doesn't always need to be treated. To reduce your risk of cancer and regulate your periods, you may take progestin (synthetic progesterone) and/or a birth control pill.
Breast hyperplasia: If you have ADH or ALH, your healthcare provider may recommend surgical removal of the surrounding tissue to reduce your risk of developing breast cancer. Typical ductal hyperplasia doesn't require treatment.
Benign prostate hyperplasia: BPH can be treated with lifestyle changes, pelvic floor exercises, physical therapy, and medications that shrink the prostate. Minimally invasive procedures or surgery may be required in the case of an obstructed bladder or severely enlarged prostate.
If hyperplasia tests determine that you have cancer or precancerous cells, the available treatment options are as follows:
Endometrial hyperplasia: A hysterectomy (surgery to remove the uterus and cervix) is the preferred treatment in most cases of endometrial cancer. Targeted drug therapy, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy may also be necessary. You may also get a hysterectomy if you have a high risk of endometrial cancer but haven't yet developed it and don't want to get pregnant again.
Breast hyperplasia: Breast cancer is most commonly treated with surgery, such as surgical removal of the cancer itself or a mastectomy (surgical removal of the breast).
Depending on your initial results and other risk factors, your healthcare provider may or may not recommend repeat hyperplasia testing to make sure that you don't have cancer or another serious condition. This could happen every six months to a year.
In the meantime, there are steps you can take to reduce your overall risk of cancer. Examples include:
Quitting smoking
Reducing your alcohol intake
Lowering stress
Prioritizing sleep
Managing your weight, if necessary
Increasing your intake of fiber, vegetables, fruits, whole grains, vitamin D, and protein
Decreasing your intake of sugar, caffeine, red and processed meats, and fast food
Exercising for 150–300 minutes per week
When you get (or are waiting for) a concerning diagnosis like hyperplasia, managing your anxiety can be difficult. Here are a few healthy ways to cope:
Joining a peer support group to find community and resources
Managing stress through breathing exercises, relaxation, and mindfulness techniques such as meditation
Talking openly to your family and friends about it
Taking time to participate in activities you enjoy
Journaling about your feelings
Getting psychotherapy to treat comorbid mental health conditions, such as depression, grief, and anxiety
Hyperplasia refers to an abnormal increase in the number of cells in an otherwise healthy or "normal" part of the body. Common types include hyperplasia of the breast, endometrial hyperplasia, and benign prostate hyperplasia.
Sometimes, hyperplasia is a sign of precancerous cell changes. It may increase your risk of certain types of cancer. However, hyperplasia doesn't always indicate malignancy. It may or may not require treatment, depending on the type and other risk factors. If you've been diagnosed with hyperplasia, talk to your healthcare provider about your risk of cancer and other health complications.
Read the original article on Verywell Health.
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Pelvic Pain And Abnormal Vaginal Bleeding: Must-know Symptoms Of Gynaecological Cancers
Breast cancer often comes to mind as the most common cancer affecting women. However, it is just as important to understand gynaecological cancers like endometrial cancer and ovarian cancer. Uterine cancer – its most prevalent form is endometrial cancer – is the fourth most common cancer among Singaporean women, while ovarian cancer is the sixth most common. Consultant medical oncologist Jack Chan sheds light on the two cancers and their treatment options.
Q: What are gynaecological cancers and what are the symptoms of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer?
Gynaecological cancers are those that originate from a woman's reproductive system. These include cancers of the uterus and ovaries, with endometrial cancer specifically referring to cancer of the womb's inner lining.
Most women diagnosed with endometrial cancer experience abnormal vaginal bleeding. For premenopausal women, this includes bleeding between periods and heavy and/or prolonged bleeding. After menopause, any vaginal bleeding – including spotting – is abnormal.
On the other hand, ovarian cancer is sometimes called the "silent killer" because it can be asymptomatic in early stages and may only be noticed when the cancer has become large or advanced. Symptoms to watch for are abdominal bloating, pelvic or abdominal pain, urinary frequency or urgency, and feeling full quickly when eating.
Q: What are the risk factors for ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer and are they preventable?Risk factors for ovarian cancer include hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome, family history, hormone replacement therapy, more frequent menstrual cycles, and increased age.
For endometrial cancer, risk factors include being obese, having diabetes, late menopause, oestrogen therapy, having never given birth, lack of exercise and those with Lynch syndrome, which is a hereditary predisposition to certain types of cancer.
Some cases of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer are genetically linked. Ovarian cancer related to BRCA1/2 gene mutations can be prevented by surgical removal of ovaries and fallopian tubes. The risk of non-genetically linked endometrial cancer can be reduced by maintaining a healthy weight and regular exercise.
Q: How have treatments for ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer evolved over the years and what are some of the latest options?
Surgery remains the main treatment for operable cases of primary ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer. Radiotherapy, with or without intravenous chemotherapy, is given after surgery for endometrial cancer at intermediate to high risk of relapse. Intravenous chemotherapy may also be required after surgery for ovarian cancer, depending on the cancer stage, grade, and subtype.
In patients with stage 3 to 4 ovarian cancer who are not suitable for upfront surgery, chemotherapy can be used first to shrink the cancer before surgery. On the other hand, cancer medicines, including chemotherapy, are the mainstay of treatment for inoperable stage 4 or recurrent cases of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer.
A newer class of oral targeted medicines, known as Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, has revolutionised ovarian cancer treatment. PARP inhibitors are drugs that prevent the cancer cells from repairing themselves so that they die. These can be used after a patient's ovarian cancer responds well to platinum chemotherapy to prevent recurrence or prolong control of the cancer.
The latest development in the treatment of advanced or recurrent endometrial cancer is immunotherapy, which harnesses the patient's own immune system to turn against cancer cells.
Q: What is maintenance therapy and how can it impact a patient's prognosis and quality of life?
Maintenance therapy is an active drug treatment which is intended to maintain cancer remission or keep the disease under control. Approved maintenance therapies in ovarian cancer include monoclonal antibodies – proteins that mimic human antibodies – as well as PARP inhibitors.
These treatments extend the time that the cancer is kept under control for ovarian cancer patients, and do not reduce patients' quality of life, when compared to a placebo or no active treatment.
Gynecologic Cancer Group Singapore is a non-profit organisation dedicated to the research of and advocacy for women's cancer care in Singapore.
Please consult a doctor for medical advice or further information.
NP-SG-AOU-ADVR-230001Approved: September 2023
What Is Skin Cancer?
Skin cancer -- abnormal cell changes in the outer layer of skin -- is by far the most common cancer in the world. It can usually be cured, but the disease is a major health concern because it affects so many people. About half of fair-skinned people who live to age 65 will have at least one skin cancer. Most can be prevented by protecting your skin from the sun and ultraviolet rays.
Every malignant skin tumor will, over time, show up on the skin's surface. That makes this the only type of cancer that is almost always found in its early, curable stages.
Skin cancers fall into two major categories: melanoma and nonmelanoma.
The most common skin cancers, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, are nonmelanoma skin cancers and rarely life-threatening. They grow slowly, seldom spread beyond the skin, are easily found, and usually are cured. Basal cell carcinoma, which accounts for nearly 3 out of 4 skin cancers, is the slowest growing. Squamous cell carcinoma is somewhat more aggressive and more inclined to spread.
A rare nonmelanoma skin cancer is Kaposi's sarcoma, notable for its purple growths. It's related to a weak immune system and can be more serious. People with AIDS and the elderly tend to get it.
Some noncancerous skin growths could become cancerous. The most common are actinic keratoses -- crusty, reddish patches on sun-exposed skin that may scratch off but grow back.
The other type of skin cancer, melanoma, is a potentially aggressive, life-threatening cancer. It can start in dark skin tissue, such as a mole or birthmark, as well as in normally pigmented skin. For men, it generally shows up first on your head, neck, or between your shoulders and hips. Women tend to get it on their arms and legs. You may also find it on the palm of your hand, on the sole of your foot, under a fingernail or toenail, in mucus linings (in your mouth, vagina, or anus, for example), and even in your eye.
Melanoma is usually curable if found and treated early. But it grows faster than other types of skin cancer, and it can spread beyond your skin to other parts of the body, including your bones and brain. Then it's very hard to treat and is difficult to cure.
Spending too much time in the sun is the main cause of skin cancer. Sunlight has ultraviolet (UV) rays that can change the DNA in skin cells in ways that lead to cancer. Sunlamps, tanning booths, and X-rays also make these UV rays that damage skin.
Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma have been linked to ongoing sun exposure, typically in fair-skinned people who spend a lot of time outside. Melanoma has been linked with blistering sunburns; just one during childhood seems to double your risk for melanoma later in life.
Regularly working around certain chemicals and other things known to cause cancer may raise the odds of getting a nonmelanoma skin cancer, including:
Skin cancer tends to affect people of light skin color because they're born with the least amount of protective melanin in their skin. The odds are highest if you're:
People with many freckles or moles, particularly odd-looking ones, may be vulnerable to melanoma. It's possible for dark-skinned people to get skin cancer, but it's rare and usually on lighter areas of their body, such as the soles of the feet or under fingernails or toenails.
Where you live also plays a role. Places with intense sunshine, such as Arizona and Hawaii, have a larger share of people with skin cancer. It's more common in places where fair-skinned people moved from less sunny areas, like Australia, which was settled largely by fair-skinned people of Irish and English descent.
About 3 times more men than women get skin cancer. It's more likely when you're older. Most people diagnosed are between ages 45 and 54, although more younger people are now being affected. If you or any close relatives have had skin cancer, your chances go up.
Finding and treating skin cancer quickly is considered a cure. The type of skin cancer you have and how much it has spread, as well as your other health issues, will help your doctor decide how to treat it.
They may use one or more different ways to remove, kill, or stop the cancer cells from growing:
If the usual treatment doesn't work or it's difficult for you, you may be able to find a clinical trial. These test new ways to treat cancers that could be more effective or have lesser side effects.
Once you've had a skin cancer, like basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma, and squamous cell carcinoma, there's a good chance that you'll develop a new skin cancer within a few years, so you'll need to get your skin checked regularly to catch it early.
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